A Critical Review of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: Synthesis Strategies, Doping Chemistry, Structure–Property Correlations and Nanoscale Toxicological Considerations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST2613161Keywords:
Zinc oxide nanoparticles, Metal-doped ZnO, Reactive Oxygen Species, Nanoscale toxicityAbstract
Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles are technologically significant class of metal oxide nanomaterials, whose optical, electronic, and the surface properties are strongly governed by size, morphology, crystal defects, and the elemental doping. Controlled synthesis and dopant incorporation play a major role in shaping their performance at nanoscale. This critical review examines conventional chemical synthesis routes, like sol–gel, hydrothermal, solvothermal, precipitation along with green synthesis strategies using plant extracts, highlighting their effect on the crystallinity, particle size, morphology, and defect chemistry. Also focusing on transition and non-transition-metal doping, with comparative discussion on dopant-induced lattice distortion, bandgap modulation, oxygen vacancy formation, surface reactivity, and structure–property correlations. Moreover, nanoscale toxicological considerations are addressed that highlights the dependence of ZnO nanoparticle toxicity on physicochemical parameters, exposure pathways, and dose. Current challenges in reproducibility, dopant control, and safety assessment are identified and are outlined for rational design of ZnO nanoparticles for nanotechnology-driven applications.
Downloads
References
P. Sharma, M. R. Hasan, N. K. Mehto, et al., “92 years of zinc oxide: Has been studied by the scientific community since the 1930s—An overview,” Sens. Int., vol. 3, 100182, Jan. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2022.100182
I. Ayoub, V. Kumar, R. Abolhassani, R. Sehgal, V. Sharma, R. Sehgal, H. C. Swart, and Y. K. Mishra, “Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials,” Nanotechnol. Rev., vol. 11, 575–619, Jan. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0035
M. Ding, Z. Guo, L. Zhou, et al., “One-dimensional zinc oxide nanomaterials for application in high-performance advanced optoelectronic devices,” Crystals, vol. 8, 223, Jun. 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst8050223
B. Qu, Z. Xiao, and Y. Luo, “Sustainable nanotechnology for food preservation: Synthesis, mechanisms, and applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles,” J. Agric. Food Res., vol. 19, 101743, Mar. 2025 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2025.101743
I. Dutta, A. Rahaman, S. Singh, et al., “Nanoparticles (NPs) based drug delivery system: An inspiring therapeutic strategy for cancer therapy and their future prospects,” J. Drug Deliv. Ther., vol. 15, 133–143, Apr. 2025. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v15i4.7040
H. Ibne Shoukani, S. Nisa, Y. Bibi, et al., “Ciprofloxacin-loaded PEG-coated ZnO nanoparticles with enhanced antibacterial and wound healing effects,” Sci. Rep., vol. 14, 55306, Dec. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-55306-z
M. Carofiglio, S. Barui, V. Cauda, et al., “Doped zinc oxide nanoparticles: Synthesis, characterization and potential use in nanomedicine,” Appl. Sci., vol. 10, 5194, Jul. 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10155194
P. Shafiee, M. Reisi Nafchi, S. Eskandarinezhad, et al., “Sol–gel zinc oxide nanoparticles: Advances in synthesis and applications,” Synth. Sinter., vol. 1, 1477, Dec. 2021. https://doi.org/10.53063/synsint.2021.1477
E. K. Droepenu, B. S. Wee, S. F. Chin, et al., “Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesis methods and its effect on morphology: A review,” Biointerface Res. Appl. Chem., vol. 12, pp. 4261–4292, Jul. 2022. https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC123.42614292
B. M. Savi, L. Rodrigues, and A. M. Bernardin, “Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by sol–gel processing,” in Proc. Qualicer 2012 Congr., Castellón, Spain, Feb. 2012. https://www.qualicer.org/recopilatorio/ponencias/pdfs/2012201.pdf
C. Ozel, C. K. Macit, T. Gurgenc, et al., “Enhancing dielectric properties of ZnO nanopowders with 2D hBN doping: Production, structural, morphological and dielectric characterization,” Appl. Phys. A, vol. 130, 232, Mar. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-024-07380-3
S. Gyawali, L. K. M. O. Goni, M. S. Chowdhury, et al., “Effect of KOH concentration on the properties of ZnO nanoparticles,” Mater. Res. Express, vol. 9, 085031, Aug. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ac6b8a
A. K. Azfar, M. F. Kasim, I. M. Lokman, et al., “Comparative study on photocatalytic activity of transition metals (Ag and Ni) doped ZnO nanomaterials synthesized via sol–gel method,” R. Soc. Open Sci., vol. 7, 191590, Jan. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191590
G. Rajendran, S. P. Datta, R. D. Singh, et al.,“Synthesis and characterization of ZnO nanoparticles: Comparison of acetate precursor–based methods,” Inorg. Nano-Met. Chem., vol. 52, pp. 185–194, Jan. 2022 https://doi.org/10.1080/24701556.2021.1891099
A. A. Barzinjy and H. H. Azeez, “Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Eucalyptus globulus Labill. leaf extract and zinc nitrate hexahydrate salt,” SN Appl. Sci., vol. 2, 991, May 2020 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2813-1
S. N. Begum and R. Kumuthini, “Characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized via chemical and green method,” J. Ovonic Res., vol. 18, pp. 505–512, Sep. 2023. https://doi.org/10.15251/JOR.2023.195.505
N. H. Mohammed and A. H. Al Khazraji, “Synthesis and study of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites,” J. Pharm. Negat. Results, vol. 13, pp. 790–797, Dec. 2022. https://doi.org/10.47750/pnr.2022.13.04.105
M. J. Haque, M. M. Bellah, M. R. Hassan, et al., “Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by two different methods and comparison of their structural, antibacterial, photocatalytic and optical properties,” Nano Express, vol. 1, 020013, Jun. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1088/2632-959X/ab7a43
I. Aadnan, O. Zegaoui, A. El Mragui, et al., “Structural, optical and photocatalytic properties of Mn-doped ZnO nanoparticles used as photocatalysts for azo-dye degradation under visible light,” Catalysts, vol. 12, 1382, Nov. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111382
H. Ghaznavi, M. R. Hajinezhad, Z. Hesari, et al., “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of copper-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles’ anticancer effects: In vitro and in vivo experiments,” BMC Cancer, vol. 25, 37, Jan. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-024-13398-w
G. K. Prashanth, P. A. Prashanth, P. Singh, et al., “Effect of doping (with cobalt or nickel) and UV exposure on the antibacterial, anticancer, and ROS generation activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles,” J. Asian Ceram. Soc., vol. 8, pp. 1175–1187, Oct. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/21870764.2020.1824328
K. Pradeev Raj, K. Sadaiyandi, A. Kennedy, et al., “Influence of Mg doping on ZnO nanoparticles for enhanced photocatalytic evaluation and antibacterial analysis,” Nanoscale Res. Lett., vol. 13, 229, Jul. 2018 https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2643-x
M. Asif, M. Fakhar-e-Alam, M. Tahir, et al., “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of the antimicrobial and anticancer activities of zinc oxide and aluminum-doped zinc oxide nanocomposites,” Pharmaceuticals, vol. 17, 1216, Sep. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17091216
A. Ullah, M. Saadullah, F. Alvi, et al., “Synergistic effect of silver doped ZnO nanomaterials enhances the anticancer potential against A459 lung cancer cells,” J. King Saud Univ. Sci., vol. 34, 101724, Jan. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101724
M. Zangeneh, H. A. Nedaei, H. Mozdarani, et al., “Enhanced cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of gadolinium doped ZnO nanoparticles on irradiated lung cancer cells at megavoltage radiation energies,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 103, 109739, Oct. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.109739
H. H. Bavojdan, M. Ghorbanpour, M. J. A. Alatabe, et al., “Sustainable synthesis and characterization of iron doped zinc oxide nanosheets for antibacterial activity,” J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., vol. 10, pp. 152–160, Mar. 2025 https://doi.org/10.22090/jwent.2025.02.004
F. Asma, W. Prasetyo, Priyono, I. Nurhasanah, et al., “Synthesize of cerium doped ZnO nanoparticles as antioxidant agent,” J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., vol. 2190, 012045, Jan. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2190/1/012045
M. Sohaib, T. Iqbal, S. Afsheen, et al., “Novel sol–gel synthesis of Mo doped ZnO NPs for photo catalytic wastewater treatment using the RhB dye as a model pollutant,” Environ. Dev. Sustain., vol. 25, pp. 11583–11598, Aug. 2023 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02543-9
J. C. Anaya Zavaleta, A. S. Ledezma Pérez, C. Gallardo Vega, et al., “ZnO nanoparticles by hydrothermal method: synthesis and characterization,” Technologies (Basel), vol. 13, 18, Jan. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13010018
S. Mohan, M. Vellakkat, A. Aravind, et al., “Hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles of various shapes under different reaction conditions,” Nano Express, vol. 1, 030028, Sep. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1088/2632-959X/abc813
A. Ejsmont and J. Goscianska, “Hydrothermal synthesis of ZnO superstructures with controlled morphology via temperature and pH optimization,” Materials, vol. 16, 1641, Feb. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16041641
A. A. Belew, M. Ghorbanpour, M. J. A. Alatabe, et al., “Solvothermal synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles: a review of applications, challenges, and future perspectives,” Results Chem., vol. 16, 102438, Jan. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2025.102438
W. Zhang, X. Chen, N. Xu, et al., “Morphology and optical property of ZnO nanostructures grown by solvothermal method: effect of the solution pretreatment,” J. Nanomater., vol. 2013, 986157, Jan. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/986157
Y. Wang, C. Yang, Y. Liu, et al., “Solvothermal synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles for photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange and p-nitrophenol,” Water (Switzerland), vol. 13, 3224, Nov. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223224
H. R. Ghorbani, F. P. Mehr, H. Pazoki, et al., “Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by precipitation method,” Orient. J. Chem., vol. 31, pp. 1219–1221, Jun. 2015. https://doi.org/10.13005/ojc/310281
M. A. Gatou, K. Kontoliou, E. Volla, et al., “Optimization of ZnO nanoparticles’ synthesis via precipitation method applying Taguchi robust design,” Catalysts, vol. 13, Jul. 2023, 1367. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13101367
A. E. Rashid, M. E. Ahmed, M. K. Hamid, “Evaluation of antibacterial and cytotoxicity properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by precipitation method against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus,” Int. J. Drug Deliv. Technol., vol. 12, Nov. 2022, 985–989. https://doi.org/10.25258/ijddt.12.3.11
Z. Villagrán, L. M. Anaya Esparza, C. A. Velázquez Carriles, et al., “Plant based extracts as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agents for the green synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles,” Resources, vol. 13, Feb. 2024, 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13060070
C. Pandit, A. Roy, S. Ghotekar, et al., “Biological agents for synthesis of nanoparticles and their applications,” J. King Saud Univ. Sci., vol. 34, Feb. 2022, 101869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101869
N. S. Alsaiari, F. M. Alzahrani, A. Amari, et al., “Plant and microbial approaches as green methods for the synthesis of nanomaterials: synthesis, applications, and future perspectives,” Molecules, vol. 28, Jan. 2023, 463. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010463
M. Y. Al Darwesh, S. S. Ibrahim, M. A. Mohammed, “A review on plant extract mediated green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications,” Results Chem, vol. 7, Jan. 2024, 101368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101368
S. Faisal, H. Jan, S. A. Shah, et al., “Green synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous fruit extracts of Myristica fragrans: their characterizations and biological and environmental applications,” ACS Omega, vol. 6, Mar. 2021, 9709–9722. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c00310
S. Rehman, B. R. Jermy, S. Akhtar, et al., “Isolation and characterization of a novel thermophile; Bacillus haynesii, applied for the green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles,” Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, vol. 47, Aug. 2019, 2072–2082.https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2019.1620254
J. L. Sharma, V. Dhayal, R. K. Sharma, “White-rot fungus mediated green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their impregnation on cellulose to develop environmentally friendly antimicrobial fibers,” 3 Biotech, vol. 11, Oct. 2021, 358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-021-02840
M. A. Ansari, M. Murali, D. Prasad, et al., “Cinnamomum verum bark extract mediated green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their antibacterial potentiality,” Biomolecules, vol. 10, Jun. 2020, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10020336
M. S. Geetha, H. Nagabhushana, H. N. Shivananjaiah, “Green mediated synthesis and characterization of ZnO nanoparticles using Euphorbia jatropa latex as reducing agent,” J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices, vol. 1, Nov. 2016, 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2016.06.015
M. Batool, S. Khurshid, W. M. Daoush, et al., “Green synthesis and biomedical applications of ZnO nanoparticles: Role of pegylated-ZnO nanoparticles as doxorubicin drug carrier against MDA-MB-231 (TNBC) cell line,” Crystals (Basel), vol. 11, May 2021, 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11040344
H. Chandra, D. Patel, P. Kumari, et al., “Phyto-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles of Berberis aristata: characterization, antioxidant activity and antibacterial activity with special reference to urinary tract pathogens,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 102, Nov. 2019, 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.035
M. A. Abomuti, E. Y. Danish, A. Firoz, et al., “Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia officinalis leaf extract and their photocatalytic and antifungal activities,” Biology (Basel), vol. 10, Nov. 2021, 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10111075
F. Rahman, M. A. Majed Patwary, M. A. Bakar Siddique, et al., “Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cocos nucifera leaf extract: characterization, antimicrobial, antioxidant and photocatalytic activity,” R. Soc. Open Sci., vol. 9, Nov. 2022, 220858. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.220858
N. S. A. Neamah, S. Albukhaty, I. Q. Falih, et al., “Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Capparis spinosa L. fruit extract: characterization, biocompatibility, and antioxidant activity,” Appl. Sci. (Switzerland), vol. 13, Nov. 2023, 6604. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116604
T. U. Doan, T. T. Nguyen, Y. D. Thi, et al., “Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using orange fruit peel extract for antibacterial activities,” RSC Adv., vol. 10, Nov. 2020, 23899–23907. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ra04926c
S. Rajeshkumar, R. P. Parameswari, D. Sandhiya, et al., “Green synthesis, characterization and bioactivity of Mangifera indica seed wrapped zinc oxide nanoparticles,” Molecules, vol. 28, Feb. 2023, 2818. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062818
K. Zhu, Y. Xia, X. Tian, et al., “Characterization and therapeutic perspectives of differentiation-inducing therapy in malignant tumors,” Front. Genet., vol. 14, Mar. 2023, 1271381. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2023.1271381
C. Cao, N. Yang, H. Dai, et al., “Recent advances in phase change material based nanoplatforms for cancer therapy,” Nanoscale Adv., vol. 3, Jan. 2021, 106–122. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0na00622j
G. Bisht and S. Rayamajhi, “ZnO nanoparticles: a promising anticancer agent,” Nanobiomedicine (Rij.), vol. 3, Jan. 2016, 63437. https://doi.org/10.5772/63437
D. J. Worm, S. Els Heindl, and A. G. Beck Sickinger, “Targeting of peptide-binding receptors on cancer cells with peptide-drug conjugates,” Pept. Sci., vol. 112, Jan. 2020, e24171. https://doi.org/10.1002/pep2.24171
P. Virych, P. Virych, V. Prokopiuk, et al., “Dextran-graft-polyacrylamide/zinc oxide nanoparticles inhibit cancer cells in vitro and in vivo,” Int. J. Nanomed., vol. 19, Feb. 2024, pp. 11719–11743. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S485106
A. Baig, M. Siddique, S. Panchal, “A review of visible-light-active zinc oxide photocatalysts for environmental application,” Catalysts, vol. 15, Jan. 2025, 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020100
S. A. Ramadhan, “Hematological alterations induced by zinc oxide nanoparticles and preventive role of Moringa oleifera: in vivo,” Int. J. Food Microbiol. Technol., vol. 15, Nov. 2021, 14899. http://dx.doi.org/10.37506/ijfmt.v15i2.14899
E. J. Rupa, J. Nahar, M. D. Al Amin, et al., “Cissus antractica-ZnO NPs induce apoptosis in A549 cells through ROS-generated p53/Bcl-2/Bax signaling pathways and inhibition of inflammatory cytokines,” Coatings, vol. 13, Nov. 2023, 2077. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13122077
J. Ahmad, R. Wahab, M. J. Akhtar, et al., “Cytotoxicity and apoptosis response of hexagonal zinc oxide nanorods against human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cell line,” J. King Saud Univ. Sci., vol. 33, Nov. 2021, 101658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101658
R. Tanino, Y. Amano, X. Tong, et al., “Anticancer activity of ZnO nanoparticles against human small-cell lung cancer in an orthotopic mouse model,” Mol. Cancer Ther., vol. 19, Nov. 2020, 502–512. https://doi.org/10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-19-0018
H. Kahil, M. S. Gad, H. Ebraheem, “The efficacy of ZnO-NPs prepared via green route against colon and breast cancer cells,” Discover Appl. Sci., vol. 6, Feb. 2024, 56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-05659-x
C. T. Ng, L. Q. Yong, M. P. Hande, et al., “Zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through oxidative stress responses in human lung fibroblasts and Drosophila melanogaster,” Int. J. Nanomedicine, vol. 12, Mar. 2017, 1621–1637. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S124403
B. P. George, N. K. Rajendran, N. N. Houreld, et al., “Rubus capped zinc oxide nanoparticles induce apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells,” Molecules, vol. 27, Aug. 2022, 6862. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206862
H. Yin, Y. Lu, R. Chen, et al., “Cytotoxicity and antimicrobial efficacy of Fe-, Co-, and Mn-doped ZnO nanoparticles,” Molecules, vol. 29, Feb. 2024, 5966. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29245966
M. N. Alharthi, I. Ismail, S. Bellucci, et al., “Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using Ziziphus jujube plant extract assisted by ultrasonic irradiation and their biological applications,” Separations, vol. 10, Jan. 2023, 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10020078
S. Anjum, M. Hashim, S. A. Malik, et al., “Recent advances in zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) for cancer diagnosis, target drug delivery, and treatment,” Cancers, vol. 13, Nov. 2021, 4570. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13184570
H. Sharma, K. Kumar, C. Choudhary, P. K. Mishra, B. Vaidya, “Development and characterization of metal oxide nanoparticles for the delivery of anticancer drug,” Nanotechnol. Environ. Eng., vol. 1, Nov. 2016, 672–679. https://doi.org/10.3109/21691401.2014.978980
F. Namvar, S. Azizi, H. S. Rahman, R. Mohamad, A. Zamanian, “Green synthesis, characterization, and anticancer activity of hyaluronan/zinc oxide nanocomposite,” Onco Targets Ther., vol. 9, Nov. 2016, 4549–4559. https://doi.org/10.2147/OTT.S95962
Y. Tang, W. Zhao, G. Zhu, X. Li, H. Chen, “Nano-pesticides and fertilizers: solutions for global food security,” Nanomaterials, vol. 14, Feb. 2024, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14010090
M. Ramesh, R. Janani, C. Deepa, S. Kavitha, M. Rajan, “Nanotechnology-enabled biosensors: a review of fundamentals, design principles, materials, and applications,” Biosensors, vol. 13, Jan. 2023, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13010040
H. Zhang, R. Wang, Z. Chen, Y. Li, X. Liu, “The effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles for enhancing rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield and quality,” Agriculture, vol. 11, Dec. 2021, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11121247
Z. Javed, G. D. Tripathi, M. Mishra, S. Kumar, R. Singh, “Cow dung extract mediated green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles for agricultural applications,” Sci. Rep., vol. 12, Nov. 2022, 17215. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22099-y
L. Venkata Ravishankar, N. Puranik, V. V. Lekkala, R. Sharma, S. Mehta, “ZnO nanoparticles: advancing agricultural sustainability,” Plants, vol. 14, Feb. 2025, 2430. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152430
Y. Song, M. Jiang, H. Zhang, X. Li, Y. Wang, “Zinc oxide nanoparticles alleviate chilling stress in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by regulating antioxidative system and chilling response transcription factors,” Molecules, vol. 26, Jul. 2021, 2196. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26082196
M. El-Zohri, N. A. Al-Wadaani, S. O. Bafeel, “Foliar sprayed green zinc oxide nanoparticles mitigate drought-induced oxidative stress in tomato,” Plants, vol. 10, Dec. 2021, 2400. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112400
H. AlMohamadi, S. A. Awad, A. K. Sharma, R. Khan, S. Patel, “Photocatalytic activity of metal- and non-metal-anchored ZnO and TiO₂ nanocatalysts for advanced photocatalysis: comparative study,” Catalysts, vol. 14, Mar. 2024, 420.https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14070420.
A. Xie, M. Jin, J. Zhu, Y. Li, H. Wang, “Photocatalytic technologies for transformation and degradation of microplastics in the environment: current achievements and future prospects,” Catalysts, vol. 13, May 2023, 846. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13050846
D. Blažeka, R. Radičić, D. Maletić, M. Petrović, N. Jovanović, “Enhancement of methylene blue photodegradation rate using laser synthesized Ag-doped ZnO nanoparticles,” Nanomaterials, vol. 12, Oct. 2022, 2677. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12152677
J. Khumphon, R. Ahmed, T. Imboon, W. Chaiyasit, S. Sricharoenchai, “Boosting photocatalytic activity in Rhodamine B degradation using Cu-doped ZnO nanoflakes,” ACS Omega, vol. 10, Feb. 2025, 9337–9350.https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c10034
A. Pujara, R. Sharma, N. Samriti, S. Verma, P. Gupta, “Novel zinc oxide 3D tetrapod nano-microstructures: recent progress in synthesis, modification and tailoring of optical properties for photocatalytic applications,” Mater. Adv., vol. 6, Feb. 2025, 2123–2153. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ma01272k
E. Muchuweni, T. S. Sathiaraj, H. Nyakotyo, “Synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide thin films for optoelectronic applications,” Heliyon, vol. 3, Mar. 2017, e00285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00285
N. Munna, R. Abdur, R. Islam, M. Rahman, K. Hossain, “Influence of Sn doping on the optoelectronic properties of ZnO nanoparticles,” Nanoscale Adv., vol. 5, May 2023, 4996–5004. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3na00409k
Z. Khabir, A. M. Holmes, Y.-J. Lai, R. Chen, P. Wong, “Human epidermal zinc concentrations after topical application of ZnO nanoparticles in sunscreens,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 22, Dec. 2021, 12372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212372
S. Nayak, A. Chaudhari, B. Vaidhun, “A review of zinc oxide nanoparticles: an evaluation of their synthesis, characterization, and ameliorative properties for use in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries,” J. Excip. Food Chem., vol. 11, Apr. 2020, 81–92.https://doi.org/10.21352/jefc.2020.18506
G. Meng, “Application of nanoparticles in cosmetics,” Trans. Mater. Biotechnol. Life Sci., vol. 4, Feb. 2024, 69–75. https://doi.org/10.62051/qcyb3q83
P. J. Lu, S. C. Huang, Y. P. Chen, L. C. Chiueh, D. Y. C. Shih, “Analysis of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles in cosmetics,” J. Food Drug Anal., vol. 23, Nov. 2015, 587–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2015.02.009
Y. Jiang, K. Shao, F. Zhang, X. Li, H. Wang, “‘Block and attack’ strategy for tumor therapy through ZnO₂/siRNA/NIR mediating Zn²⁺ overload and amplified oxidative stress,” Aggregate, vol. 4, Feb. 2023, e321. https://doi.org/10.1002/agt2.321
A. Sirelkhatim, S. Mahmud, A. Seeni, N. H. M. Kaus, D. Mohamad, “Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism,” Nano Micro Lett., vol. 7, Nov. 2015, 219–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x
M. Jin, N. Li, W. Sheng, et al., “Toxicity of different zinc oxide nanomaterials and dose-dependent onset and development of Parkinson’s disease-like symptoms induced by zinc oxide nanorods,” Environ. Int., vol. 146, Aug. 2021, 106179.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106179
A. J. Caron, I. J. Ali, M. J. Delgado, et al., “Zinc oxide nanoparticles mediate bacterial toxicity in Mueller–Hinton broth via Zn²⁺,” Front. Microbiol., vol. 15, Feb. 2024, 1394078. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1394078
R. Bengalli, A. Colantuoni, I. Perelshtein, et al., “In vitro skin toxicity of CuO and ZnO nanoparticles: Application in the safety assessment of antimicrobial coated textiles,” NanoImpact, vol. 21, Sep. 2021, 100282.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.impact.2020.100282
T. Andreani, V. Nogueira, A. Gavina, et al., “Ecotoxicity to freshwater organisms and cytotoxicity of nanomaterials: Are we generating sufficient data for their risk assessment?,” Nanomaterials, vol. 11, Jan. 2021, 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11010066
Y. Yan, W. Huang, X. Lu, J. Li, H. Chen, “Zinc oxide nanoparticles induces cell death and consequently leading to incomplete neural tube closure through oxidative stress during embryogenesis,” Cell Biol. Toxicol., vol. 40, Feb. 2024, 51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10565-024-09894-1
T. Devasena, B. Iffath, R. Renjith Kumar, M. Priya, S. Anand, “Insights on the dynamics and toxicity of nanoparticles in environmental matrices,” Bioinorg. Chem. Appl., 2022, Feb. 2022, 4348149. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4348149
V. Valdiglesias, A. Alba-González, N. Fernández-Bertólez, A. Touzani, L. Ríos, E. Rodríguez-Pereiro, et al., “Effects of zinc oxide nanoparticle exposure on human glial cells and zebrafish embryos,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 24, Dec. 2023, 12297. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241512297
R. Singh, S. Cheng, S. Singh, P. Kumar, A. Mehta, “Oxidative stress-mediated genotoxic effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on Deinococcus radiodurans,” 3 Biotech, vol. 10, Mar. 2020, 66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-020-2054-4
Z. Liu, X. Lv, L. Xu, Y. Wang, H. Chen, “Zinc oxide nanoparticles effectively regulate autophagic cell death by activating autophagosome formation and interfering with their maturation,” Part. Fibre Toxicol., vol. 17, May 2020, 46.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-020-00379-7
N. Fernández-Bertólez, A. Alba-González, A. Touzani, P. Martín, R. López, “Toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles: cellular and behavioural effects,” Chemosphere, vol. 363, Feb. 2024, 142993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142993
C. R. Mendes, G. Dilarri, C. F. Forsan, J. Silva, L. Oliveira, “Antibacterial action and target mechanisms of zinc oxide nanoparticles against bacterial pathogens,” Sci. Rep., vol. 12, Aug. 2022, 6300. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-06657-y
S. Jiang, K. Lin, M. Cai, “ZnO nanomaterials: current advancements in antibacterial mechanisms and applications,” Front. Chem., vol. 8, Nov. 2020, 580. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.00580
C. Hwang, M.-H. Choi, H.-E. Kim, S.-H. Jeong, and J.-U. Park, “Reactive oxygen species generating hydrogel platform for enhanced antibacterial therapy,” NPG Asia Mater., vol. 14,72, Aug. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41427-022-00420-5
F. Mohammad, B. Birma, H. A. Al-Lohedan, et al., “Influence of surface coating towards the controlled toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles in vitro,” Coatings, vol. 13, Feb. 2023, 172.https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13010172
N. G. Zavitri, A. P. Syahbaniati, R. K. Primastuti, et al., “Toxicity evaluation of zinc oxide nanoparticles green synthesized using papaya extract in zebrafish,” Biomed. Rep., vol. 19, Feb. 2023, 96. https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2023.1678
A. S. Abdelbaky, T. A. Abd El Mageed, A. O. Babalghith, S. Selim, A. M. H. A. Mohamed, “Green synthesis and characterization of ZnO nanoparticles using Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) aqueous leaf extract and their antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities,” Antioxidants, vol. 11, Nov. 2022, 1444. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11081444
I. Aadnan, O. Zegaoui, A. El Mragui, F. Benaliouche, R. Haddad, “Structural, optical and photocatalytic properties of Mn-doped ZnO nanoparticles used as photocatalysts for azo-dye degradation under visible light,” Catalysts, vol. 12, Jun. 2022, 1382. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111382
V. S. Nazim, G. M. El-Sayed, S. M. Amer, M. Hassan, A. Farouk, “Optimization of metal dopant effect on ZnO nanoparticles for enhanced visible LED photocatalytic degradation of citalopram: comparative study and application to pharmaceutical cleaning validation,” Sustain. Environ. Res., vol. 33, Mar. 2023, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-023-00198-3
V. Amrute, Monika, K. K. Supin, M. Vasundhara, A. Chanda, “Observation of excellent photocatalytic and antibacterial activity of Ag-doped ZnO nanoparticles,” RSC Adv., vol. 14, Apr. 2024, 32786–32801. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA05197A
V. Ganesh, M. S. A. Hussien, U. P. Shaik, P. Reddy, S. Ahmed, “Impact of Mo-doping on the structural, optical, and electrocatalytic degradation of ZnO nanoparticles: novel approach,” Crystals, vol. 12, Dec. 2022, 1239. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12091239
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
